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In many Native American tribes there was an equal division of labor and power between men and women [1]. For example, in eastern Plain tribes women lacked the political power such as treaty signing but owned the house (lodge or tipi), all the house contents, the farming fields and seeds, farming implements, and right to sell surplus crops. On bison hunts, women would decide where to break camp and had the right to divorce. An unkind husband may be left with only his horse and weapons since the wife owned the home. Women were also held in high esteem for their role in healing [2]. However, these roles were flexible in categories ranging from the sexual orientation to occupation. In fact, unlike Europeans, pre-colonial Native American tribes did not assign tasks based on gender. Women who wanted to pursue a traditionally male path, such as hunting, manufacturing weapons, or engaging in warfare, was free to do so [1].
For eastern Plains tribes, it wasn't until the late 1800's that these roles began to change due to influence by the U.S. government [2]. Children were sent to boarding schools where they were unable to speak their own language or practice their cultural faith [3]. Here, women were taught to focus on housekeeping and rearing children while men were taught blacksmithing and agriculture [2,3]. Even at home, Native Americans were prohibited from cultural practices. For example, in place of the Sun Dance, a traditionally female centered ritual, the Lakota people were forced into Christianity which traditionally worships a male God. This introduction of Western culture forced Native American women in more subservient and dependent roles. “Native American women experience the highest rate of violence of any group in the United States,” which is an important indicator for just how far their status has dropped [3].
As you will recall from past blogs, the U.S. traded Native American land for the promise of health care, which eventually led to the formation of the Indian Health Service (IHS). This representation of Western medicine essentially caused more problems than it solved by the late 1900's and only further served to reduce the power of Native American women.
Between the 1960 and 1970, the Indian Health Service (IHS) allegedly sterilized at least 25 percent of Native American women. Horror stories such as a young girls sterilized while undergoing appendectomies were not uncommon according to Bertha Medicine Bull, a prominent medicine woman of the Northern Cheyenne Tribe [4]. The Government Accounting Office (GAO) released an official report in 1976 verifying that the IHS performed 3,406 sterilizations between 1973 and 1976 [5]. The GAO report also confirmed that the IHS did not follow necessary regulations of consent and that the consent forms used did not adhere to The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare regulations [4]. Another study found between 1972 and 1978 sterilization procedures on the Navajo reservation alone increased from 15.1% to 30.7% of total female surgeries [6]. Many believe that the 25% statistic is too low. Mary Ann Bear Comes out conducted a survey on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation and found “the data indicated that the same rate of sterilizations would reduce births among this group by more than half over a five year period” [4]. The harsh truth is that most of these sterilizations were performed by physicians in the IHS and were, thus, financed by the U.S. government [5].
Why did these sterilizations occur? According to a 1973 study by the Health Research Group and interviews between 1974 and 1975 by Doctor Bernard Rosenfeld, “the majority of physicians were white, Euro-American males who believed that they were helping society by limiting the number of births in low-income, minority families” [4].
After Native American women were essentially left with only the role of housekeeper and child bearer [1,3] due to U.S. pressure to assimilate, this too was taken from many of them via forced sterilizations. For example, as a result of these forced sterilizations, Native American women were gravely affected. Marriages were ended, friendships were lost, rates of marital problems increased along with alcoholism, drug use, and psychological issues [4].
Not all hope is lost though, men and women who attempt to preserve native culture and re-establish the tribe’s traditional roles and unite together can empower Native American women step by step. For example, while in the Lakota tribe, most women still fill the role of child bearers, women’s positions in their own family lives are improving by reviving religious and medicinal roles through “organized clubs, guilds, parent-teacher associations, and the community and tribal council” [3]. Furthermore, the health disparities between Native American people and the U.S. population, which can worsen social stress on vulnerable populations such as Native American women, can be reduced by funding research to increase participation and offering culturally sensitive health education programs [7]. As I alluded to in my last blog post, preserving traditional healing practices allows Native women to protect their power through knowledge. A way to empower these women further is to give them control of IHS clinics and the combining of western and traditional medical practices. This is actually a legal right of sovereign tribes through the Indian Health Determination Act (Public Health Law 638).
Citations:
[1] Joe, Jennie Rose., and Francine C. Gachupin. Health and Social Issues of Native American Women. Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2012. Print.
[2] Wishart, David J. "Native American Gender Roles." Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. University of Nebraska Lincoln, 2011. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. <http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.gen.026>.
[3] Collins, Julie. The Status of Native American Women: A Study of the Lakota Sioux.Artsci.drake.edu. Drake University, 2005. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. <http://artsci.drake.edu/dussj/2005/collins.pdf>.
[4] Lawrence, Jane. "The Indian Health Service and the Sterilization of Native American Women." The American Indian Quarterly 24.3 (2000): 400-19. Muse.jhu.edu. 2000. Web. 29 Jan. 2014.
[5] Rutecki, Gregory W., MD. Forced Sterilization of Native Americans: Late Twentieth Century Physician Cooperation with National Eugenic Policies. The Center for Bioethics and Human Dignity. Trinity International University, 08 Oct. 2010. Web. 29 Jan. 2014. <http://cbhd.org/content/forced-sterilization-native-americans-late-twentieth-century-physician-cooperation-national->.
[6] H. Temkin-Greener, S. J. Kunitz, D. Broudy, M. Haffner, “Surgical fertility regulation among women on the Navaho Indian Reservation, 1972-1978.” American Journal of Public Health 71 (1981) 403-407.
[7] Warne, D. "Research and Educational Approaches to Reducing Health Disparities Among American Indians and Alaska Natives."Journal of Transcultural Nursing 17.3 (2006): 266-71. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. <http://www.ndsu.edu/fileadmin/pharmpr/Warne_TCN.pdf>.
[8] Pascale, Jordan. “Alternative Methods Still Important to Native Healers.” Cojmc.unl.edu. University of Nebraska Lincoln, n.d. Web. 23 Jan. 2014.
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